Notes - Conservancy - The Land Trust Movement in America

November 17, 2024

Chapter 1: History

Early Efforts to Protect Land

• People have been trying to protect land for centuries.
• One of the earliest examples of land protection comes from the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1636, which set aside 6,000 acres of forest to be held in common by six towns.
• This effort aimed to ensure a sustained supply of timber and fuel.
• However, the sources note that this act was not primarily motivated by conservation.
• It arose from practical considerations of resource management.

Charles Eliot and the Trustees of Reservations

• The sources highlight Charles Eliot, a landscape architect, and his contributions to land protection.
• In 1890, Eliot proposed the creation of a private organization to hold scenic and historic lands for public enjoyment.
• This led to the founding of the Trustees of Reservations in Massachusetts in 1891, which is considered the first modern land trust in the United States.
• The Trustees' initial focus was on protecting scenic and historic sites, with an emphasis on public access and recreation.
• The sources explain that Eliot's vision was shaped by his belief in the importance of public access to natural beauty and the role of private organizations in conservation efforts.

John Muir and the Sierra Club

• The Sierra Club, founded in 1892 by John Muir, is another key player in the history of land conservation.
• The Sierra Club's early efforts focused on protecting large areas of wilderness, particularly in the Sierra Nevada mountains.
• Muir, a renowned naturalist and writer, advocated for the preservation of wilderness for its own sake, emphasizing its spiritual and aesthetic value.
• The sources explain that Muir's views contrasted with the utilitarian approach of conservationists like Gifford Pinchot, who believed in managing natural resources for human benefit.

The Hetch Hetchy Controversy

• The sources explain that the Hetch Hetchy controversy of the early 20th century exemplified the tension between preservationist and utilitarian approaches to conservation.
• San Francisco sought to dam the Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite National Park to create a water reservoir.
• Muir and the Sierra Club fiercely opposed the dam, arguing that it would destroy a place of exceptional natural beauty and violate the sanctity of national parks.
• Despite their efforts, Congress approved the dam in 1913.
• The sources note that the Hetch Hetchy controversy remains a significant event in conservation history, highlighting the ongoing debate over the balance between human needs and the preservation of wild places.

Expanding the Land Trust Movement

• The sources describe how the land trust movement continued to expand in the 20th century.
• The Save-the-Redwoods League, founded in 1918, aimed to protect California's iconic redwood forests through land acquisition.
• The Nature Conservancy, established in 1951, initially focused on preserving natural areas for scientific research but later broadened its scope to include biodiversity conservation on a larger scale.
• The rise of urban sprawl in the postwar era, fueled by government policies and suburban development, further motivated land conservation efforts.
• The sources explain that as more people recognized the threats posed by sprawl, the land trust movement gained momentum.

The Evolution of Land Conservation Strategies

• Over time, land trusts developed various strategies for protecting land, including outright purchase, conservation easements, and partnerships with government agencies.
• Conservation easements, which allow landowners to restrict development on their property while retaining ownership, became increasingly popular in the latter half of the 20th century.
• The sources note that land trusts also began to focus on broader conservation goals, such as protecting biodiversity, ecosystem services, and working lands.
• By the end of the 20th century, the land trust movement had become a major force in land conservation, with thousands of organizations operating across the United States.
• The sources emphasize that the history of land conservation is one of evolving strategies, philosophies, and challenges, with land trusts playing a central role in protecting America's natural and cultural heritage.

Chapter 2: Sprawl

Urban Sprawl

• Urban sprawl can be defined as low-density residential development beyond the edge of service and employment areas. This type of development is dependent on automobiles, and it is associated with negative consequences for the environment, the economy, and society.
• The roots of sprawl can be traced back to the early 20th century, when cities began to grow rapidly and there was a demand for new housing. The federal government encouraged sprawl through programs like the Home Owners' Loan Corporation (1933) and the Federal Housing Administration (1934). These programs made it easier for people to buy homes in the suburbs and all but assured urban sprawl and its consequence, inner city decline.
• Zoning laws also contributed to sprawl by separating residential areas from commercial and industrial areas. This separation made it necessary for people to drive to get to work, shop, and run errands. As a result, the comprehensive approach to zoning has resulted in a complicated structure of zones for various uses, along with rigid specifications. The outcome is that life for most people today requires daily use of a car.

Consequences of Sprawl

• Sprawl has a number of negative consequences.
  • It destroys natural habitats and agricultural land, increases traffic congestion, pollutes the air and water, and contributes to social isolation.
  • Sprawl also makes it more difficult for people to walk, bike, or take public transportation.

Alternatives to Sprawl

• There are a number of alternatives to sprawl, such as smart growth, new urbanism, and traditional neighborhood design. These approaches emphasize compact, walkable communities that are well-connected to public transportation.
• Land trusts can play a role in combating sprawl by protecting land from development. They can also work to promote smart growth policies.

Sprawl and Land Trusts

• Sprawl is a major threat to land conservation as it continues to convert natural areas into subdivisions and strip malls.
• Land trusts are working to protect land from sprawl by acquiring land, negotiating conservation easements, and working to change land-use policies.

Chapter 3: Why Save Land?

Aesthetic Reasons

• Natural lands have a beauty, complexity, and variety that touches people in a way nothing else can. They offer people a chance to connect with nature and appreciate its beauty.

  • Example: A group of students went on a field trip to Mineral Springs bog and learned about its history and ecological significance. They saw it as a living, dynamic ecosystem with a rich history.

    • The essay mentioned the students pulling their feet out of the ooze, highlighting the sensory experience and the immersive nature of the field trip.

  • Example: Author Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, who wrote about the Florida scrub ecosystem, found solace in the remoteness and beauty of the natural landscape. She believed that people needed distance from the chaos of urban life to truly appreciate nature.

• Preserving landscapes, habitats, and species is important for maintaining the diversity and beauty of the world.

• The sensory experiences in natural areas provide a sense of wonder and escape from the monotony of urban life.

Practical Reasons

• Protecting land is essential for preserving ecosystem services that benefit everyone. These services include clean water, air purification, flood control, and carbon sequestration.

  • Example: Saving land can lead to lower property taxes because areas with protected land require fewer community services. The presence of open spaces and natural areas reduces the need for expensive infrastructure and services.

• Preserving farmland has practical benefits such as food security, local economic growth, and supporting rural communities.

• Donating land or easements can have tax benefits for individuals.

Ethical or Moral Reasons

• Humans have an ethical obligation to protect the Earth's ecosystems and act as responsible stewards of nature. This responsibility comes from the understanding that all life on Earth is interconnected and humans have a unique ability to affect the environment.

• Philosopher Aldo Leopold developed the idea of a "land ethic," which emphasizes the interconnectedness of humans and nature, advocating for a harmonious relationship between them.

  • John Muir and John Burroughs expressed similar ideas, recognizing the inherent value of nature and the need to respect it. They questioned the anthropocentric view of nature that focuses solely on human utility.

• The concept of stewardship encourages responsible land management to maintain and enhance natural resources for current and future generations.

  • Example: The stewardship of oak forests might involve prescribed burns and selective cutting to prevent their conversion to a different forest type. This active management is based on ecological principles and aims to maintain the integrity of the oak forest ecosystem.

• Religious perspectives often support stewardship, viewing humans as caretakers of God's creation.

  • Example: The book Earthkeeping: Christian Stewardship of Natural Resources argues that humans have dominion over nature but should use it to serve both nature and humanity.

Chapter 4: Who Will Save the Land?

Colleges and Universities as Land Stewards

Colleges and universities are often gifted land for preservation. However, history suggests they are not always the most reliable land stewards. They sometimes prioritize financial gain over their responsibility to protect the land.

Examples:

• The Ott Preserve: Calhoun County currently owns the 260-acre Harvey N. Ott Preserve. The land was previously owned by Battle Creek College, who sold off portions for development in the 1930s.
• Middlebury College: Joseph Battell left a large tract of land to Middlebury College with instructions to maintain the forests in their original state. The college sold portions to the U.S. Forest Service, which subsequently developed and logged the land, including a portion that is now the Sugarbush Ski Area.
• Mount Kearsarge: The Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests donated the summit of Mount Kearsarge to the state of New Hampshire to be used as a forestry and recreational reservation. The state later erected numerous public safety telecommunication towers on the summit, impacting the scenic view.

Biological Diversity: Saving Land Based on Ecological Principles

Key Concepts:

• Biodiversity Encompasses More Than Just Species: Losing a unique ecosystem or landscape also represents a loss of biodiversity, even if all the individual species still exist elsewhere. Protecting interacting species within their natural communities is crucial for preserving biodiversity.
• Land Trusts and Conservation Rules: Land trusts can play a significant role in conserving biodiversity by applying ecological principles to their land acquisition strategies.

Nine Rules for Conservation-Oriented Land Acquisition

The sources lay out nine rules to guide land trusts in maximizing their conservation efforts:

1. Represent Natural Ecosystems: Focus on protecting representative examples of all major ecosystems within the land trust's service area, even if complete representation proves challenging.
2. Have a Vision, Plan, and Protect High-Quality Sites: Develop a clear vision and plan, prioritizing high-quality sites with intact ecosystems and characteristic species. Utilize scientific knowledge and local expertise to identify and assess potential preserves.
3. Preserve the Largest Areas Possible: Prioritize acquiring larger parcels to support larger populations, minimize edge effects, and provide for the needs of species that require extensive habitats.
4. Add Land Around Preserves: Expand existing preserves by acquiring adjacent land to increase size and buffer against external impacts.
5. Some Small Preserves Are Worth Saving: Recognize the value of small preserves, especially those with unique ecological features, high restoration potential, or educational value.
6. Construct Corridors if It's Easy: Consider creating corridors to connect larger habitat patches, facilitating species movement and genetic exchange, but prioritize practicality and feasibility.
7. Consider the Whole Landscape: Understand how human-modified landscapes interact with natural areas and consider the broader landscape context in land protection decisions.
8. Save Rare, Threatened, and Endangered Species: Prioritize protecting habitats for rare, threatened, and endangered species, but plan for long-term habitat management to ensure their survival.
9. Prioritize: Develop a scoring system to prioritize land acquisitions based on the quality of the land, the deal's feasibility, and the land trust's ability to ensure adequate stewardship.

Chapter 5: Choosing Land to Save

Introduction: Saving land and rationales

A land trust's mission to save land, particularly natural lands, necessitates a clear understanding of the underlying reasons for such preservation. These rationales can be categorized into three main areas: aesthetic, practical, and ethical or moral considerations.

Aesthetic Reasons: Beauty and connection to nature

The aesthetic value of natural lands lies in their intrinsic beauty, providing a source of inspiration, tranquility, and connection to the natural world. May Theilgaard Watts, in her book "Reading the Landscape of America," emphasizes the profound experience of immersing oneself in natural landscapes, likening it to walking on a history book with a "flexible cover". Preserving such landscapes ensures the continuation of these enriching experiences for future generations.

Practical Reasons: Ecosystem Services and economic benefits

Beyond their aesthetic appeal, natural lands provide vital ecosystem services that are crucial for human well-being. These services include climate moderation, flood prevention, pest control, and water purification, among others. While economists might advocate for exploiting these resources up to a certain limit, a more holistic approach recognizes the inherent value of preserving natural ecosystems in their entirety as a safeguard against potential ecological imbalances.

Ethical or Moral Reasons: A Land Ethic and Stewardship

Aldo Leopold's concept of a "land ethic" posits that humans should act as responsible members of Earth's ecosystems, acknowledging their interconnectedness with all living things. This ethical framework emphasizes nurturing and preserving nature rather than dominating and exploiting it. Similar sentiments are echoed in the writings of John Muir and John Burroughs, who recognized the limitations of a purely utilitarian view of nature. This ethical perspective underscores the moral imperative to protect natural lands for their intrinsic value and the well-being of all living beings.

Stewardship, often cited as a motivation for land protection, aligns with the land ethic by emphasizing responsible management of natural resources. It involves actively engaging in practices like prescribed burns and invasive species control to maintain the health and integrity of ecosystems.

Conservation Biology and Biodiversity: Guiding Principles for Land Selection

Conservation biology provides valuable insights for land trusts to effectively protect biodiversity. Preserving biodiversity encompasses safeguarding not only species from extinction but also the diversity of ecosystems, landscapes, and genes. Land trusts can apply principles from conservation biology to formulate rules for acquiring land that maximizes their conservation impact.

Conservation Rules for Acquiring Land: Practical Guidelines for Land Trusts

Rule 1. Protect Intact Ecosystems and Landscapes:

• Prioritize protecting entire, functioning ecosystems rather than isolated fragments.
• Focus on areas that encompass the essential habitat requirements of key species, including breeding and foraging grounds.
• Example: Protecting a heron colony should include the colony site, the stream or pond where they fish, and the surrounding habitats where they live.

Rule 2. Vision, Planning, and High-Quality Sites:

• Develop a clear vision and a comprehensive plan that outlines the conservation priorities for the service area.
• Focus on protecting high-quality sites with intact ecosystems and representative species.
• Utilize existing knowledge from publications, databases, and local experts to identify high-quality sites.
• Conduct thorough on-site assessments to evaluate the ecological integrity of potential acquisitions.

Rule 3. Prioritize Larger Areas:

• Larger areas support larger populations, reducing the risk of extinction due to random events.
• Larger habitat blocks are crucial for species that exhibit habitat selection behaviors, such as forest-interior birds.
• Larger areas have less edge, which is beneficial for species that thrive in interior habitats.
• Example: Forest-edge species like song sparrows and indigo buntings have benefited from habitat fragmentation, while forest-interior species like ovenbirds and black-throated blue warblers require large, intact forests.

Rule 4. Connect Existing Preserves:

• Acquiring land that connects existing protected areas creates corridors that facilitate species movement and dispersal.
• Collaboration with other conservation organizations can enhance the effectiveness of connectivity efforts.

Rule 5. Consider Small but Ecologically Significant Preserves:

• Small preserves can be valuable for protecting unique ecosystems, rare species, or critical habitats.
• They can also serve as educational resources and potential starting points for future land acquisitions.
• Example: Protecting a small, high-quality fen or a site with a rare plant community can be ecologically significant, even if it's relatively small.

Rule 6. Protect Source Habitats:

• Source habitats are high-quality areas that produce a surplus of individuals that can disperse to other areas.
• These areas are essential for maintaining viable populations of species.
• Recognizing and prioritizing source habitats is crucial for long-term conservation success.

Rule 7. Protect Sink Habitats Judiciously:

• Sink habitats are lower-quality areas that may not support self-sustaining populations but can receive individuals dispersing from source habitats.
• Protecting sink habitats can be beneficial for increasing overall population size and genetic diversity.
• However, it's essential to ensure that protecting sink habitats does not come at the expense of protecting higher-quality source habitats.

Rule 8. Consider Species Needs When Protecting Endangered Species:

• Acquire sufficient habitat to support the recovery of endangered species, including potential for expansion or shifts in their range.
• Implement appropriate habitat management practices to maintain suitable conditions for endangered species.
• Example: Protecting an endangered salamander species requires securing not only its current habitat but also considering potential future habitat needs and implementing management practices to mitigate threats.

Rule 9. Prioritize Acquisitions Based on Land Quality, Deal Quality, and Stewardship Potential:

• Develop a scoring system to evaluate potential land acquisitions based on:
  • Quality of the land: ecological significance, size, connectivity, etc.
  • Quality of the deal: clear title, boundaries, access, and willingness of the owner
  • Stewardship potential: feasibility of managing the property effectively
• Example: Prioritizing a property with high ecological value, a straightforward acquisition process, and a manageable stewardship plan over a property with lower ecological value, complex ownership issues, and challenging stewardship requirements.

Weighing Ownership vs. Easements: Balancing Control and Pragmatism

The decision of whether to acquire land outright or pursue conservation easements involves considering factors such as control, stewardship capacity, and financial resources. While outright ownership provides greater control over management, easements can be a more pragmatic approach for protecting larger areas or working lands. Some land trusts prioritize easements to avoid the burden of managing multiple small properties.

Chapter 6: Stewardship

Defining Stewardship

Stewardship is the ongoing care and management of land to achieve specific conservation goals. These goals may include:

• Maintaining regional biodiversity.
• Protecting specific habitats or species.
• Restoring degraded land to a healthy state.

Stewardship Methods

• Undisturbed Land: Some preserves are best left undisturbed to allow natural processes to take their course.
• Active Management: Others require active management, such as controlled burns, invasive species removal, or habitat restoration.
• Habitat Management for Endangered Species: Properties harboring endangered species likely require specific habitat management plans to ensure their survival.

Importance of Planning and Science-Based Management

• Written Management Plans: Management procedures for each preserve should be detailed in a written plan, which is regularly reviewed and updated as needed.
• Scientific Basis: Management plans should be grounded in the best available scientific knowledge and practical experience.
• Collaboration with Experts: Consulting with ecologists and other experts can help inform management decisions.

Stewardship Challenges

• Funding: Stewardship can be expensive, requiring resources for labor, materials, and ongoing monitoring.
• Time Commitment: Active management requires a significant investment of time from staff and volunteers.
• Lack of Expertise: Land trusts may lack the necessary expertise to carry out certain management tasks.
• Balancing Needs of Different Species: Managing for one species may negatively impact another, creating difficult trade-offs.

Community Involvement and Education

• Engaging Volunteers: Well-publicized workdays can engage volunteers in stewardship activities, fostering a sense of community and providing valuable labor.
• Educating the Public: Stewardship activities provide opportunities to educate the public about the importance of land conservation and the ecological processes at work on preserves.

Monitoring and Evaluation

• Regular Monitoring: Regular monitoring of preserves is essential to track changes, assess the effectiveness of management practices, and identify potential threats.
• Data Collection: Collecting quantitative data on species populations, vegetation cover, and other ecological indicators can provide valuable insights for adaptive management.
• Evaluation of Stewardship Effectiveness: Land trusts should regularly evaluate the effectiveness of their stewardship efforts and make adjustments as needed.

Preserve Defense

• Legal Challenges: Preserves may face legal challenges from neighbors, developers, or government agencies seeking to use the land for other purposes.
• Funding for Legal Defense: Land trusts should establish a preserve defense fund to cover the costs of legal action, similar to the easement defense fund used to protect conservation easements.
• Engaging Neighbors: Building relationships with owners of adjoining properties can help enlist their support and vigilance in protecting preserves.

Stewardship and the Future of Land Conservation

• Ensuring Long-Term Protection: Effective stewardship is crucial for ensuring the long-term protection of the conservation values of preserves.
• Legacy for Future Generations: Stewardship ensures that the land will be enjoyed by future generations in the same condition that inspired its protection.
• Connecting People to Nature: Stewardship activities provide opportunities for people to connect with nature, deepening their appreciation for the land and fostering a sense of responsibility for its care.

Chapter 7: How to Save Land

This chapter discusses the legal and financial mechanisms for land conservation, focusing on:

Methods of Protecting Land

• Fee simple acquisition, which involves outright ownership of the land, and conservation easements, which involve the transfer of certain rights to a conservation organization or government agency while the landowner retains ownership.

Gifts and Sales

• The simplest way to protect land is to donate it to a land trust.
• Land can also be sold to a land trust, either at fair market value or at a bargain sale price, which allows the landowner to claim a charitable deduction for the difference.

More Esoteric Ways to Save Land

• These methods, often used by landowners with significant assets, can provide financial benefits while ensuring land protection.
• One example involves a land trust securing funding from donors and combining it with a bargain sale from the landowner to purchase and protect a high-value property while providing an inheritance for the landowner's children.

The Conservation Easement Document

• The document outlines the terms of the easement, including:
  • Conveyance: The transfer of the easement from the donor to the land trust.
  • Conservation Values: The specific values of the property that the easement aims to protect.
  • Prohibited Actions: Activities that are not allowed on the property to ensure the conservation values are maintained.
  • Permitted Uses: Activities that the landowner retains the right to engage in.
  • Other Articles: Routine legal provisions.

Conservation Easements from the Standpoint of the Land Trust

• While land trusts might prefer fee simple ownership for complete control over stewardship, conservation easements offer a more cost-effective way to protect larger areas.
• The trade-off involves balancing the landowner's desired uses with the land trust's conservation goals.

Public Benefit

• Conservation easements, even without public access, provide public benefits, including:

  • Scenic beauty
  • Ecosystem services like water purification
  • Habitat for wildlife
  • Opportunities for local food production

• It is essential that easements are carefully crafted to ensure these benefits are secured.

Why Owners Protect Their Land

• Studies show that landowners are motivated by a combination of factors:
  • Personal Commitment to the Land: A desire to protect its natural beauty and prevent its exploitation.
  • Stewardship: A desire to ensure the land is managed responsibly for future generations.
  • Economic Concerns: Tax benefits and property tax reductions.

Chapter 8: Defending Conservation Easements

Monitoring

Land trusts need to regularly revisit each easement property, at least annually, for two main reasons:

• To identify any violations that may have occurred since the last visit.
• To monitor ongoing changes in the property. Natural ecosystems are in constant flux, with changes in hydrology, succession, and plant and animal ranges, and a land trust needs to know the current state of each property to ensure that it's effectively protecting the intended conservation values.

Baseline Documentation

Baseline documentation is essential for successfully defending a conservation easement in case of a serious challenge. It's analogous to the plans and specifications used in construction, providing a detailed record of the property's condition at the time the easement was granted. This documentation is crucial for establishing a clear understanding of what was intended to be protected.

The Liberty Ship Mentality

Unfortunately, some land trusts fall short in baseline documentation and monitoring due to what's referred to as the "Liberty ship mentality." During World War II, Liberty ships were mass-produced rapidly, with a focus on speed over long-term durability. This approach led to quality issues that manifested later. Similarly, some land trusts prioritize quickly acquiring easements without sufficient attention to the long-term requirements of monitoring and enforcement.

Underestimation of Violations

The actual frequency of conservation easement violations may be higher than reported. A study in the San Francisco Bay Area found that 14% of easements had violations, but this figure only accounts for the easements that were being monitored. Since the same study found that only about half of the easements were being monitored, the actual violation rate could be significantly higher.

Addressing Violations

When violations do occur, the goal is to restore the conservation values in the simplest and least confrontational way possible. Fortunately, most landowners are willing to rectify the situation once they understand the problem and the terms of the easement. Sometimes, the language in an easement can be vague or open to misinterpretation, leading to unintentional violations.

Amending Easements

While amending an easement can sometimes be the best way to resolve a problem, it's generally advisable to keep amendments rare. Amending an easement can be complex, involving considerations such as tax deductions, private benefit, conservation values, the original donor's intent, and public perception.

The generally accepted rule for amendments is to consider them only if they won't harm and preferably enhance the conservation values, and if the easement change increases the property's value, the land trust should receive assets of at least equal value.

The Uncertain Future of Easements

The future of conservation easements remains somewhat uncertain. There have been both positive and negative legal developments. While some court decisions have supported the validity and enforceability of easements, other trends, such as questions about the charitable trust doctrine, raise concerns about their long-term strength.

On the positive side, land trusts are becoming more aware of the importance of carefully drafting and defending easements to ensure their lasting effectiveness.

Chapter 9: The Land Trust Alliance

Origins of the Land Trust Alliance

• In 1982, the Land Trust Exchange was created to support and promote the land trust movement.
• It later became the Land Trust Alliance (LTA).
• The LTA aimed to provide a practical, experience-based approach to land conservation, as reflected in their Standards and Practices Guidebook.

Publications and Programs

• The LTA's magazine, Exchange, has been a key source of information for land trusts for over two decades.
• Exchange consistently addresses legal issues, public policy, fundraising, and news about the LTA and the broader land trust movement.
• The magazine also heavily features articles about conservation easements.
• This focus on easements is also evident in the LTA's annual rallies, where easement-related presentations far outnumber those on other land protection methods.
• Possible reasons for this emphasis include:
  • The complexity of easements, requiring more explanation.
  • A preference within the LTA for this method of land protection.

Shifts in Focus

• Over time, Exchange has seen a decline in articles on preserve acquisition and stewardship, while the focus on easement monitoring and defense has increased.
• The magazine has also given limited coverage to non-financial motives for saving land and to educational initiatives.

The LTA's Influence and Future Directions

• The LTA has played a significant role in promoting and guiding the land trust movement.
• The organization's emphasis on conservation easements has likely influenced the widespread adoption of this land protection method.
• However, the LTA's limited focus on other aspects of land conservation, such as stewardship and non-financial motivations, may need reconsideration.
• The LTA is also encouraged to expand its educational efforts to better inform the public about land conservation and the benefits of protected land.

Chapter 10: The Nature Conservancy

The Nature Conservancy's Origins and Early History

• The Nature Conservancy (TNC) is a large, international conservation organization that has protected millions of acres of land around the world. Its roots can be traced back to the early 20th century, when a group of ecologists formed the Ecological Society of America's (ESA) Committee for the Preservation of Natural Conditions to advocate for the protection of natural areas for scientific research.
• The committee struggled to be effective as an advocacy group, and it eventually split into two committees. The Study Committee focused on research, while the Preservation Committee continued to advocate for land protection.
• Frustrated by the slow pace of government action, the Preservation Committee decided to take matters into its own hands and began acquiring land for preservation. The committee incorporated as the Ecologists Union (EU) in 1946 and changed its name to The Nature Conservancy in 1950.

The Nature Conservancy's Transformation and Growth

• In the early years, TNC was a small, volunteer-run organization that focused on protecting small parcels of land that were of high ecological value. The organization's first major publication was an inventory of nature sanctuaries in the United States and Canada, which was an update of the Naturalist's Guide to the Americas.
• Over time, TNC grew in size and sophistication. The organization developed a professional staff and began to focus on protecting larger tracts of land and landscapes. This shift was driven by the emerging field of conservation biology, which emphasized the importance of protecting large, intact ecosystems.
• Katharine Ordway, a philanthropist who was passionate about prairie conservation, played a key role in TNC's growth during this period. Ordway's generous donations allowed TNC to acquire large tracts of prairie land, which helped to shift the organization's focus from small parcels to landscapes.
• TNC's approach to land conservation continued to evolve in the 1980s and 1990s. The organization adopted the Natural Heritage Program, which uses scientific data to identify and prioritize areas for conservation. TNC also began to focus on working with local communities to develop conservation strategies that benefit both people and nature.

The Nature Conservancy's Current State

• Today, TNC is one of the largest and most respected conservation organizations in the world. The organization has protected over 12 million acres of land in the United States and has helped to protect over 60 million acres elsewhere in the world. TNC has a membership of over one million people and a staff of nearly 3,000.
• TNC's mission is to "conserve the lands and waters on which all life depends". The organization uses a variety of strategies to achieve this mission, including land acquisition, conservation easements, and working with local communities.
• TNC is also a leader in the field of conservation science. The organization's scientists conduct research to better understand the threats to biodiversity and to develop strategies for conservation. TNC also works to share this knowledge with other conservation organizations and with the public.

The Nature Conservancy's Strengths and Challenges

• TNC's strengths include its size, its financial resources, its scientific expertise, and its commitment to working with local communities. The organization's size and financial resources allow it to undertake large-scale conservation projects. TNC's scientific expertise ensures that its conservation efforts are based on the best available science. And the organization's commitment to working with local communities helps to ensure that its conservation efforts are sustainable.
• However, TNC also faces a number of challenges.
  • One challenge is the increasing pace of habitat loss around the world. TNC must work quickly to identify and protect the most important areas for conservation before they are lost to development.
  • Another challenge is the need to find ways to balance the needs of people with the needs of nature. TNC must develop conservation strategies that benefit both people and nature in order to be successful.
  • Finally, TNC must ensure that its conservation efforts are sustainable. The organization must find ways to engage local communities in conservation and to develop long-term funding mechanisms to support its work.

The Nature Conservancy's Future

• The future of TNC will be shaped by the challenges it faces.
  • The organization must continue to innovate and to develop new strategies to meet the growing threats to biodiversity.
  • TNC must also continue to build partnerships with other conservation organizations, with governments, and with local communities. Only by working together can we hope to conserve the lands and waters on which all life depends.

TNC and Local Land Trusts

• It is important to note that TNC's focus on large-scale conservation projects has led to a gap in conservation efforts at the local level. Many local land trusts have stepped in to fill this gap, protecting smaller properties that are important for local biodiversity and ecosystem services.
• TNC often collaborates with local land trusts, sharing resources and expertise to achieve shared conservation goals. This collaboration is essential for ensuring that conservation efforts are effective at all scales.

Chapter 11: The Trust for Public Land

Origins and Mission

• The Trust for Public Land (TPL) is a national land trust that specializes in helping communities acquire land for parks, gardens, greenways, and other public spaces.
• TPL was founded in 1972 by a group of people who believed that everyone should have access to nature.
• TPL's mission is to "conserve land for people to enjoy as parks, gardens, and natural areas, ensuring livable communities for generations to come".

Approach and Scale

• TPL works with local governments, community groups, and other partners to identify and acquire land for public use.
• The organization uses a variety of tools to acquire land, including purchase, donation, and conservation easements.
• TPL is willing to work on projects of all sizes, from small urban gardens to large wilderness areas.
• TPL has saved big parcels too. One example is the 13,500-acre Pond of Safety Forest linking the northern and southern units of the White Mountain National Forest (New Hampshire). Another, a collaboration with the Save-the-Redwoods League, with funding from the Packard Foundation, is the Coast Dairies property, up the California coast from Santa Cruz: 7,000 acres with seven miles of ocean shoreline.

Financial Resources and Impact

• TPL's cash flow is an order of magnitude below TNC's, but the approximately $70 million annual income allows it to save a lot of land.
• In the twenty-five years from 1973 to 2000, it had done over 1,900 deals protecting about 1.2 million acres.

Planning Process and Community Involvement

• TPL's planning process emphasizes community involvement and collaboration.
• The organization works with local residents to identify their needs and priorities for public spaces.
• TPL also helps communities develop plans for managing and maintaining their new parks and open spaces.

Comparison with The Nature Conservancy

• TPL is similar to The Nature Conservancy (TNC) in that it is a national land trust that works to protect land.
• However, there are also some key differences between the two organizations.
  • TPL focuses on acquiring land for public use, while TNC primarily focuses on protecting land for its biodiversity value.
  • TPL is also generally willing to work on smaller projects than TNC.

Chapter 12: Farmland Protection

The Importance of Farmland

• The sources emphasize the multifaceted value of farmland, extending beyond its role in food production.
• They note that farmland protection has gained increasing attention due to the recognition of its importance for various reasons.

Reasons for Saving Farmland

The sources outline a comprehensive set of reasons for saving farmland, categorizing them as:

Aesthetic Reasons

• Maintain scenic diversity: Farmland contributes to the visual appeal of landscapes, offering a contrast to urban or suburban environments.
• Keep a living expression of regional history: Farms often represent a tangible link to a region's agricultural heritage and cultural identity.

Practical Reasons

• Ensure a local food supply: Protecting farmland helps maintain the viability of local agriculture, reducing reliance on distant food sources.
• Support the local economy: Agriculture provides jobs and contributes to the economic well-being of rural communities.
• Retain open space: Farmland serves as a buffer against urban sprawl, preserving open landscapes and natural areas.
• Protect ecosystem services: Agricultural lands contribute to various ecosystem services, such as water purification, pollination, and carbon sequestration.
• Reduce the cost of community services: Studies have shown that farmland development often leads to higher costs for infrastructure and services, while farmland preservation can mitigate these costs.

Ethical Reasons

• Stewardship responsibility: Protecting farmland aligns with the ethical principle of responsible land management for future generations.
• Preserve a way of life: Farmland preservation supports the continuation of agricultural traditions and the livelihoods of farming families.

Farmland Protection Strategies

• Purchase of Development Rights (PDRs): PDR programs involve the acquisition of development rights from farmers, allowing them to continue farming while restricting future development on the land.
• Agricultural Conservation Easements: These easements, similar to conservation easements for natural areas, restrict non-agricultural uses of farmland, ensuring its continued agricultural use.
• Tax Incentives: Governments offer tax breaks or preferential assessments to landowners who agree to maintain their land in agricultural use.
• Zoning and Land-Use Planning: Local governments can implement zoning regulations and land-use plans that prioritize the protection of farmland from development pressures.

Challenges in Farmland Protection

• Economic Pressures: Rising land values and development pressures make it challenging to compete for farmland acquisition or secure easements.
• Changing Agricultural Practices: The shift towards larger-scale, industrialized agriculture can lead to the consolidation of farms and the loss of smaller family farms.
• Public Perception: Public understanding of the importance of farmland protection and its various benefits can influence policy decisions and funding for conservation efforts.

Farmland Protection Organizations

• American Farmland Trust (AFT): A national organization dedicated to protecting farmland through policy advocacy, land acquisition, and education.
• Local and Regional Farmland Protection Organizations: Numerous organizations operate at local and regional levels, working to preserve farmland within their communities.

Examples of Farmland Protection

• Cove Mountain Farm, Virginia: The American Farmland Trust acquired a conservation easement on this historic farm, protecting its scenic beauty and agricultural productivity.
• Suffolk County, New York: The county's PDR program has successfully preserved thousands of acres of farmland, maintaining its agricultural character and rural landscape.
• Davis, California: The city's agricultural buffer zone protects farmland surrounding the city, preventing urban encroachment and preserving agricultural viability.

Chapter 13: Trails and Greenways

Early Trails

• Early trails were primarily created for practical purposes, such as transportation and trade.
• The Illinois and Michigan Canal, completed in 1848, is an example of a trail that was originally intended for commercial use but later became valued for recreation.
• The Appalachian Trail, conceived in 1921, was one of the first trails designed specifically for recreation, demonstrating a growing appreciation for nature and outdoor experiences.

The Rails-to-Trails Movement

• The rails-to-trails movement began in the 1960s, inspired by the vision of converting abandoned railroad corridors into trails for walking, biking, and other recreational activities.
• This movement gained momentum in the 1980s, fueled by factors like the growing popularity of outdoor recreation, the desire to preserve open space, and the recognition of the economic benefits of trails.
• The Rails-to-Trails Conservancy, founded in 1986, emerged as a leading organization advocating for the creation and preservation of rail-trails across the United States.

Benefits of Trails and Greenways

• Trails and greenways offer numerous benefits, including opportunities for recreation and exercise, connecting people with nature, improving air quality, reducing traffic congestion, and enhancing property values.
• Trails can also provide economic benefits by attracting tourists, supporting local businesses, and creating jobs related to trail construction and maintenance.
• Example: The Illinois Prairie Path**, created in 1963 on an abandoned railroad right-of-way, quickly gained popularity for recreation and demonstrated the potential of rail-trails to enhance communities.

Challenges of Trails and Greenways

• Creating and maintaining trails and greenways present challenges like acquiring land or easements, securing funding for construction and maintenance, and addressing concerns from neighboring landowners.
• Example: William H. Whyte, who recognized the benefits of trails, noted the difficulty of navigating legal and political obstacles to secure right-of-ways for trail development. He acknowledged the dedication and perseverance required to overcome these challenges, describing the people involved as "screwballs."

Greenways as Corridors

• Greenways can function as corridors connecting natural areas, allowing wildlife to move between habitats that would otherwise be fragmented by development. These corridors are crucial for maintaining biodiversity and the health of ecosystems.
• Example: The Florida Greenways Commission has identified areas of high conservation value and created a state greenway system to connect them, recognizing the importance of preserving ecological integrity on a larger scale.

Case Study: The Katy Trail

• The Katy Trail in Missouri, developed on a former railroad corridor, is a successful example of a long-distance rail-trail. It stretches over 200 miles, offering opportunities for recreation and transportation.
• The trail has attracted tourists and boosted local economies, demonstrating the positive economic impact of trails.
• It also serves as a wildlife corridor, showcasing the potential of greenways to enhance both human and ecological well-being.

Trails and Land Trusts

• Land trusts play a vital role in creating and protecting trails and greenways. They can acquire land for trails, negotiate conservation easements, and partner with government agencies and other organizations to develop and manage trail systems.
• Example: The American Hiking Society partners with local land trusts to develop trails, recognizing the expertise and resources that land trusts bring to trail projects.
• Land trusts can also engage in advocacy efforts to promote policies that support trail development and funding.

Chapter 14: A Diversity of Local Land Trusts

Regional Differences in Land Trusts

• The sources provide information about the characteristics of land trusts across different regions of the United States.
• They point out that the dominant mode of land protection (whether through fee ownership or conservation easements) varies among regions.
• In the West, easements are the more prevalent method, while fee ownership is more common in the Northeast and Midwest.
• The Southeast shows a more balanced approach.
• These regional differences likely reflect variations in land values, development pressures, and conservation priorities.
• The sources also note that the number of land trusts and the total acreage protected vary significantly across states within each region.

Examples of Local Land Trusts

The sources provide examples of seven local land trusts, highlighting their diverse approaches and accomplishments.

• Kestrel and Other Amherst Area Land Trusts
  • Located in the Pioneer Valley of Massachusetts, this group of land trusts works to protect the region's natural and cultural heritage.
  • The area boasts a rich literary and conservation history, with figures like Robert Frost and David Grayson celebrating its beauty.
  • The Kestrel Trust, a prominent organization in the area, focuses on protecting a variety of habitats, including forests, meadows, and wetlands.
  • They prioritize land that provides public access and educational opportunities.
• Green Horizon Land Trust
  • Operating in central Florida, this land trust specializes in protecting lands along the Lake Wales Ridge.
  • The Lake Wales Ridge is a unique ecological region characterized by ancient sand dunes and a high concentration of endemic species.
  • The Green Horizon Land Trust faces challenges from ongoing development pressures and habitat loss in this rapidly changing area.
• Big Sur Land Trust
  • This land trust works to preserve the scenic beauty and ecological integrity of the Big Sur coast in California.
  • The Big Sur region is renowned for its dramatic coastline, redwood forests, and diverse wildlife.
  • The Big Sur Land Trust emphasizes protecting large, connected landscapes and providing public access to the coast.
• Jackson Hole Land Trust
  • Located in Wyoming, this land trust focuses on protecting the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, one of the most significant wildlife habitats in North America.
  • The Jackson Hole region faces pressures from development and tourism, making land conservation crucial for maintaining wildlife corridors and open spaces.
• Maine Coast Heritage Trust
  • This land trust protects islands, coastal lands, and working waterfronts along the Maine coast.
  • They aim to preserve the state's maritime heritage and scenic beauty while supporting sustainable coastal communities.
• Michigan Nature Association
  • One of the oldest land trusts in the country, this organization focuses on acquiring and managing nature sanctuaries throughout Michigan.
  • They have a strong scientific foundation and prioritize protecting high-quality natural areas that represent the state's diverse ecosystems.
  • The Michigan Nature Association demonstrates the commitment of local organizations to hands-on conservation efforts.
• Hill Country Land Trust
  • This land trust operates in the Texas Hill Country, protecting a region known for its rolling hills, spring-fed rivers, and unique flora and fauna.
  • They work to balance land conservation with the needs of a growing population, promoting sustainable land management practices.

The Need for Research and Education

The sources emphasize the importance of research and education in advancing the land trust movement.

Research

• They argue that more research is needed to understand the effectiveness of different land conservation strategies, the costs and benefits of stewardship, and the impacts of land protection on property values and local economies.
• They suggest studying various aspects of land trust operations, such as the optimal staff size and the frequency of easement violations.
• Data-driven insights can help land trusts make more informed decisions and demonstrate the value of their work.

Education

• The sources advocate for land trusts to engage in public education to promote an understanding of land conservation and the importance of protecting natural resources.
• They highlight the need to educate the public about different land protection methods, the ecological and economic benefits of preserved land, and the concept of sense of place.
• Education can foster a stronger conservation ethic and encourage more people to support land trust efforts.
• The sources also suggest focusing on family-oriented programs and educational initiatives to instill a love of nature in younger generations.

Chapter 15: A Cleaner, Greener Land

The Need for Data-Driven Approaches in Land Conservation

The sources advocate for a more rigorous, data-driven approach to land conservation. They suggest land trusts can benefit from research and analysis to inform their decision-making and evaluate the effectiveness of their efforts.

Specific Areas for Research:

• Frequency and Costs of Easement Violations: Gather comprehensive data to better understand the prevalence of easement violations, the factors that contribute to them, and the expenses associated with addressing them.
• Infringements on Preserves: Systematically document and analyze instances where preserves are impacted by external factors or unauthorized activities. This information can help land trusts develop strategies to protect their preserves.
• Fiscal Impacts of Development Versus Preservation: Conduct more sophisticated studies that compare the long-term economic consequences of land development with the benefits of preserving land. This research can provide compelling evidence to support land conservation initiatives.
• Optimal Land Trust Staffing Levels: Analyze the relationship between land protected and staffing levels for land trusts of varying sizes. This analysis can help determine the most efficient and effective staffing models for maximizing conservation impact.

Education as a Central Mission for Land Trusts

The sources stress the importance of education as a fundamental responsibility for land trusts. They argue that educating the public is essential for building support for land conservation, fostering a sense of place, and inspiring future generations to become stewards of the land.

Key Educational Themes:

• Methods of Land Protection: Clearly explain the various ways land can be permanently protected, such as through donations, conservation easements, and government acquisitions.
• Values of Protected Land: Articulate the diverse benefits that flow from protected land, including ecological, economic, social, and cultural values. Highlight how land conservation contributes to a healthier, more sustainable, and more vibrant community.
• Sense of Place: Cultivate an understanding and appreciation for the unique characteristics, history, and natural beauty of the local region. Connect people to the land through stories, art, literature, and direct experiences in nature.

Embracing a Holistic and Adaptive Approach

The sources encourage land trusts to adopt a holistic and adaptive approach to land conservation. This means:

• Engaging in Research: Actively seek out research opportunities, partner with academic institutions, and use data to guide decision-making.
• Sharing Knowledge: Disseminate research findings, share best practices, and participate in conferences and workshops to learn from others in the field.
• Embracing Innovation: Explore new and creative approaches to land conservation, such as conservation buyer deals or partnerships with diverse stakeholders.
• Prioritizing Education: Make education a central element of the land trust's mission. Develop engaging programs and materials to connect people to the land and inspire future generations of conservationists.
• Adapting to Change: Recognize that the challenges and opportunities facing land conservation are constantly evolving. Be willing to adapt strategies, refine techniques, and embrace new knowledge.