Notes - How Music Works

October 13, 2024

Chapter 1: Creation in Reverse

The context in which music is made largely determines what is written, painted, sculpted, sung or performed. This idea contradicts the conventional wisdom that creation emerges from an interior emotion or creative urge that must be expressed. Instead, artists often unconsciously tailor their work to the available formats and opportunities.

Opportunity and availability are often the mother of invention. The emotional story is still told, but its form is guided by prior contextual restrictions. For example, David Byrne argues that contemporary hip-hop is written to be heard in cars with powerful sound systems. The music is bass-heavy with a strong high end, leaving space in the middle for the vocals. Byrne also describes how he intentionally limited himself when writing songs for the band Talking Heads, using only the bare minimum of instrumentation and stage effects. These self-imposed limitations helped to define the band’s sound.

Byrne notes that imperfection and repetition are key elements of music. Imperfections in live performance, such as a slight hesitation or a missed note, can actually enhance the emotional impact of the music. Repetition, on the other hand, helps listeners to internalize the music and make it their own.

Chapter 2: My Life in Performance

Byrne uses his own performance experiences to illustrate how he developed his understanding of stagecraft. In the early days of Talking Heads, Byrne decided to make the band’s performances completely transparent, showing the audience how everything worked. He hoped this would make the performances more engaging and create a more intimate connection with the audience.

Byrne also describes how he learned valuable lessons from William Chow, a Beijing Opera actor, about directing an audience’s attention. Chow told Byrne that he needed to let the audience know he was going to do something special before he did it, so they wouldn’t miss it. Byrne realized that this rule applies to all forms of performance, including film and stand-up comedy.

Byrne discusses the importance of acknowledging the “conversation” about how a story is being told. In horror movies, for example, the director often tips off the audience about what is going to happen, playing with their expectations and acknowledging that the audience knows that they know. This same technique can be used on stage to create a more engaging performance.

Chapter 3: Where Music Can Happen

The context in which we experience music can dramatically impact how we hear and feel it. Byrne notes that the evanescence of live performance makes us listen more intently. If we knew we could hear a song again at any time, we might not pay as much attention to it. Byrne uses the analogy of reading literature off a screen that displays it only briefly before disappearing. If that were the only way to experience literature, we would likely pay much closer attention to what we were reading.

Byrne discusses how the introduction of recording technology changed our relationship with music. The debate about whether a recording should be a faithful reproduction of reality or an artistic interpretation in its own right is ongoing.

Chapter 4: Recording Music

Byrne describes the influence of recording technology on the structure and sound of music. Early recording technology had limitations, such as the size of the discs, which limited the length of recordings. This, in turn, forced musicians to shorten their compositions. Byrne also discusses how recording technology allowed musicians to experiment with new sounds and textures.

He argues that the portability of recording devices allowed for the discovery and dissemination of music from marginalized communities. However, he notes that the removal of music from its original context can also lead to a flattening out of its cultural significance. Byrne cites Alan Lomax’s recordings of Lead Belly as an example of how commercial interests can distort the presentation of “authentic” folk music.

Byrne discusses how recording technology led to a trend towards smoothness and accuracy in music. This trend was met with periodic reactions, as many people came to believe that roughness and inaccuracy were positive values that represented authenticity.

Byrne provides examples of how composers adapted to the limitations of early recording technology. Stravinsky wrote his “Serenade for Piano” with four movements that would each fit onto one side of a record. Ellington began to write “suites” whose sections cleverly accommodated the length of a three- or four-minute recording.

Chapter 5: Technology Shapes Music: Digital

Byrne examines the impact of sound digitization and the compact disc on music. He describes the early efforts to create high-fidelity sound recordings. Byrne describes the ideological motivations of the engineers at ERPI who wanted to bring high-quality sound to audiences worldwide.

He discusses the "volume war" in music recording. As radio became a dominant medium, musicians and producers began to employ psychoacoustic tricks to make their recordings sound louder than the competition. This led to the use of compressors and limiters, which can have a negative impact on the sonic quality of music.

Byrne explores the ways in which the human ear perceives sound. We can isolate sounds in noisy environments, tune out repetitive noises, and perceive patterns in sounds. These abilities are not based on the physics of the eardrum, but on the way our brains process auditory information.

Byrne notes that the “loudness war” was further exacerbated by the development of digital audio processing technology. This technology allowed engineers to make recordings even louder without introducing distortion, but it also led to a decrease in dynamic range, making music sound compressed and fatiguing to listen to.

Byrne also talks about the limitations of digital recording, specifically the way in which MIDI software rounds off the speed of a note strike to the nearest whole number. This can result in a loss of expression and nuance in musical performances.

Chapter 6: In The Recording Studio

Byrne describes the philosophy of "deconstruct and isolate" that dominated music recording in the late 1970s. He explains how producers sought to remove all ambient sound and reverberation from recordings, creating a “dead” sound that could then be manipulated in the mixing process.

He acknowledges that this approach had its drawbacks, and that it sometimes led to a dulling effect on recordings. He also notes that some musicians and producers rejected this dogma, opting instead to record bands playing together in a single room.

Byrne discusses the assumption that songwriting is always autobiographical. He argues that this is not always the case and that the music itself can evoke emotions and feelings in the listener, regardless of the songwriter’s intentions.

He uses the example of Talking Heads’ music to illustrate how the recording process can influence the lyrics of a song. The band’s minimalist, groove-based approach to music-making led Byrne to gravitate towards lyrics that were repetitive and hypnotic.

Byrne provides insights into his songwriting process, describing how he often starts with random phrases and words that fit the meter of the music. He then uses these fragments to create a narrative or emotional thread.

Chapter 7: Collaborations

Byrne argues that there is no hierarchy in music, and that good musicians of any style are just as talented as musicians of any other style. He emphasizes the importance of finding the right collaborators and the benefits of working with people from diverse backgrounds. He cites the many successful songwriting teams throughout history as evidence of the power of collaboration.

Byrne also discusses the different ways in which musicians communicate and share ideas. He notes that traditional music notation is limited in its ability to capture the nuance of a musical performance. Musicians often resort to metaphors, analogies, and references to other recordings to communicate their ideas.

He explains how he and Brian Eno used visual scores to create music for My Life in the Bush of Ghosts. These scores did not specify which notes to play but suggested higher or lower pitches and the relationship between different musical parts.

Byrne uses Robert Farris Thompson’s analysis of African textiles to illustrate how non-musical objects can be seen as “musical scores.” These textiles feature repeating patterns and motifs that interact with each other in complex ways, much like the different parts of a musical composition.

Byrne describes his collaborative process with Brian Eno on their album Everything That Happens Will Happen Today. Byrne shared his vision for the album with Eno, and then worked on the songs individually, sending them back and forth until they were finished.

Byrne discusses his experience writing songs for the musical Here Lies Love, which tells the story of Imelda Marcos. Because the musical was based on a historical figure, Byrne began the writing process with the words, drawing inspiration from quotes, speeches, and interviews.

He explains how he used the words of ordinary Filipinos who participated in the People Power Revolution to create songs that reflected their experiences. He was inspired by Rebecca Solnit’s book A Paradise Built in Hell, which describes the utopian social transformations that can emerge from disasters and revolutions.

Byrne describes his process of “emergent storytelling,” in which he creates lyrics by fitting words and phrases to existing melodies and rhythms. He notes that this process often results in lyrics that have an emotional consistency and narrative thread, even though these aspects were not planned ahead of time.

He provides a detailed explanation of how he transcribes gibberish vocals into real words. He believes that the specific sounds of the gibberish convey emotional information that he wants to preserve in the final lyrics.

Byrne discusses the different techniques he uses to overcome writer’s block, including jogging while recording phrases that match the meter of the song he is working on.

He argues that the songwriting process can be seen as a collaboration with oneself, with one’s subconscious mind, and with the collective unconscious. When we write, we access different parts of ourselves, and the end product is the result of these different parts working together.

Chapter 8: Business and Finances

Byrne examines the changing landscape of the music industry, highlighting the decline in CD sales and the rise of digital distribution. He argues that this shift has presented both challenges and opportunities for musicians.

Byrne argues that the traditional role of record labels is changing. He asks whether labels are still necessary in a world where musicians can distribute their music independently.

Byrne outlines six different distribution models that are available to musicians:

1. The 360° Deal: The record label controls every aspect of the artist’s career, including recording, touring, merchandising, and endorsements.
2. Standard Royalty Deal: The record label finances the recording and distribution of the album, and the artist receives a percentage of the sales.
3. Production and Distribution (P&D) Deal: The artist finances the recording of the album, and the label handles distribution and promotion.
4. Profit-Share Deal: The artist and the label share the costs of producing the album, and they split the profits 50/50.
5. Licensing Deal: The artist retains ownership of the master recording and licenses it to a label for distribution.
6. Self-Distribution: The artist handles all aspects of the release, from recording and production to marketing and distribution.

Byrne discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each model. For example, the 360° deal offers the potential for massive sales, but it also gives the label a great deal of control over the artist’s career. The standard royalty deal gives the artist more creative freedom, but it also means they have to share a larger portion of the profits with the label. Self-distribution gives the artist complete control, but it also requires them to handle all aspects of the release themselves.

Byrne uses his own experience self-releasing his album Everything That Happens Will Happen Today to illustrate the complexities of the music business. He provides a detailed breakdown of the costs and revenues associated with the release.

Byrne argues that the best distribution model for a musician depends on their individual circumstances. Factors to consider include the artist’s budget, their marketing plan, and their desired level of creative control.

Chapter 9: How to Make a Scene

Byrne uses the example of CBGB, the legendary New York City music club, to illustrate the factors that contribute to the development of a thriving music scene. He argues that CBGB was a “self-actuating, self-organizing system” that fostered creativity and innovation.

Byrne outlines seven key elements of a successful music scene:

1. An emphasis on new material: Venues should encourage musicians to perform original music, rather than covers.
2. Accessibility for both audiences and musicians: Venues should be affordable and easy to get to.
3. A relaxed atmosphere: Venues should be places where people can hang out and socialize, without feeling pressured to buy drinks or pay attention to the music.
4. Low overhead: Venues should keep their costs down so they can afford to pay musicians fairly and offer affordable ticket prices.
5. Regular bookings: Venues should book bands regularly to create a sense of momentum and community.
6. Fair payment for musicians: Venues should pay musicians a fair percentage of the door or ticket sales.
7. An “anything goes” attitude: Venues should be open to all kinds of music and performance styles.

Byrne acknowledges that these rules are not hard and fast, but they provide a useful framework for creating a supportive environment for musicians and audiences alike.

Chapter 10: Amateurs!

Byrne celebrates the value of amateur music-making, arguing that it has many positive knock-on effects. He contrasts the “don’t give a shit” attitude of the amateur with the pressure to create masterpieces that often burdens professional artists.

Byrne criticizes the way in which “high art” institutions often receive lavish funding, while amateur music programs are often neglected. He argues that this funding disparity reflects a societal bias towards “quality” art that is seen as timeless and universal.

Byrne deconstructs the notion that "quality" art is inherently superior to other forms of art. He cites the philosopher Immanuel Kant’s argument that we find a work of art beautiful because it embodies some innate moral essence. Byrne challenges this idea, pointing out that standards of beauty are relative and that pleasure alone can be a valid reason for appreciating art.

Byrne uses the example of a New York Times advertisement for a classical music appreciation course to illustrate how high art institutions often promote themselves as purveyors of superior taste. He argues that this approach can make people feel insecure about their own musical preferences.

Byrne argues that the focus on “quality” art often serves to exclude certain types of music and discourage amateurism. He criticizes the idea that only geniuses should be supported in the arts, pointing out that many great artists started out as amateurs.

Byrne discusses the practice of wealthy individuals donating money to high art institutions in exchange for having their names displayed on buildings and other prominent locations. He notes that this practice does little to support emerging artists or grassroots music scenes.

Byrne criticizes the Los Angeles Opera's $31 million production of Wagner's Ring Cycle as an example of how high art institutions can become financially unsustainable. He argues that these institutions often rely on private and state funding to cover their losses, which limits their ability to experiment and take risks.

Byrne highlights the efforts of some high art institutions to make their work more accessible to a wider audience. He cites the example of the New World Symphony in Miami, which features a large outdoor screen where people can watch performances for free.

Byrne discusses the financial struggles of many symphony orchestras in the United States. He uses the example of the Detroit Symphony Orchestra, which went on strike in 2010 over a contract dispute that would have required musicians to participate in community outreach programs.

Byrne argues that high art institutions need to adapt to the changing cultural landscape and find new ways to engage with audiences. He suggests that they could learn from the success of grassroots music programs like El Sistema in Venezuela.

Byrne highlights the work of José Antonio Abreu, the founder of El Sistema, who believed that music could be a powerful tool for social change. He notes that El Sistema has been successful in providing music education to children from disadvantaged backgrounds, and that it has helped to reduce crime and poverty in Venezuela.

Byrne contrasts El Sistema’s success with the decline of music education in the United States. He criticizes the No Child Left Behind Act for its emphasis on standardized testing, which has led to cuts in arts funding in many schools.

Byrne describes the work of David Wish, the founder of Little Kids Rock, which provides free instruments and music instruction to children in underserved communities. Wish's program encourages improvisation and composition, which helps children develop their creativity and self-expression.

Chapter 11: Harmonia Mundi

Byrne explores the connections between music, mathematics, and the natural world. He discusses the ideas of Johannes Kepler, who believed that the universe was created according to musical harmonies. He also examines the Vitruvian Man, a drawing by Leonardo da Vinci that illustrates the ideal proportions of the human body, which were thought to be based on mathematical ratios.

Byrne discusses the work of Noam Chomsky, who proposed that language is an evolutionary spandrel, meaning that it developed as a byproduct of other evolutionary processes. Byrne suggests that music may have evolved in a similar way.

Byrne examines the work of Dale Purves and his colleagues at Duke University, who have studied the biological basis of music. They found that the pitches we use in speech and music are based on the natural resonances of the human vocal tract. They also found that the overtones produced by our vocal cords correspond to the intervals that we find pleasing in music. Byrne argues that these findings support the idea that music is rooted in our biology.

Byrne explores the relationship between music and emotion. He notes that certain musical intervals and scales are often associated with specific emotions. He also discusses the role of mirror neurons in our emotional response to music.

Byrne provides a nuanced view of the debate about whether musical meaning is culturally determined or universal. He cites examples of how the same piece of music can evoke different emotions in people from different cultures.

Byrne discusses Marshall McLuhan’s ideas about the impact of technology on human perception. McLuhan argued that the rise of visual media has led to a decline in our auditory sense and a shift in the way we think about the world.

Byrne examines John Cage’s exploration of silence. Cage argued that true silence is impossible for humans to experience, because we are always surrounded by the sounds of our own bodies. Cage's work challenged the traditional boundaries between music and noise.

Byrne discusses the work of Alvin Lucier and Ellen Fullman, who create music using long strings and other unconventional instruments. These composers explore the natural resonances of their instruments, creating music that is often minimalist and meditative.

Byrne concludes by reflecting on his own musical preferences. He enjoys both music that adheres to traditional structures and music that pushes the boundaries of what is considered “musical.” He sees value in both the concise narrative of a pop song and the expansive soundscape of a contemporary composition.